Nā ʻakika a me nā kumu: Nā Manaʻo, Hui Hoʻohui, Nomenclature.

Nā ʻakika a me nā kumu: Nā Manaʻo, Hui Hoʻohui, Nomenclature

I loko o ke ao nui o ke kemika, he kuleana koʻikoʻi nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i nā kaʻina hana kemika a me ke olaola. ʻO kēia mau mea, me nā ʻano hiʻohiʻona ʻokoʻa, ke kumu o nā hopena kemika he nui a pono kā lākou aʻo ʻana e hoʻomaopopo i ke ʻano a me ke ʻano o nā molekala.

Ma kēia ʻatikala, e ʻimi kikoʻī mākou i nā manaʻo kumu o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, a me nā hui conjugate i hana ʻia i ka wā o ka hopena acid-base. Eia hou, e kamaʻilio mākou i ka nomenclature i hoʻohana ʻia e ʻike a hoʻokaʻawale i kēia mau pūhui, e hāʻawi ana i ka poʻe heluhelu i ke kumu paʻa no ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana a me ka nānā ʻana i nā ʻano kemika like ʻole e pili ana i nā waikawa a me nā kumu.

Mai ka manaʻo o Arrhenius a hiki i nā wehewehe hou o Lewis lāua ʻo Brønsted-Lowry, e nānā mākou i nā kumu manaʻo e hoʻokumu i ke ʻano acidic a i ʻole ke ʻano kumu o kahi mea. Eia hou, e hōʻike mākou i ke koʻikoʻi o nā hui conjugate i ka neutralization a me ke kaulike ma waena o nā waikawa a me nā kumu, e hōʻike ana i ko lākou pilina pili a me ko lākou hopena i nā hopena kemika.

Ma waho aʻe o ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā manaʻo kumu, e nānā kikoʻī mākou i ka nomenclature i hoʻohana ʻia e koho i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, me ka nānā ʻana i nā suffixes, prefix a me nā lula e pili ana i ko lākou inoa. ʻO ke ala koʻikoʻi i ka nomenclature e hoʻomaʻamaʻa i ka kamaʻilio pololei ma waena o nā chemists a ʻae i ka hoʻokaʻawale kūpono ʻana o kēia mau mea e like me ko lākou ʻano kemika.

Ma ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo, e hāʻawi kēia ʻatikala i kahi ʻike piha o nā manaʻo kumu o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, a me nā hui conjugate a me nā nomenclature e pili ana i kēia mau pūhui. Me ke ʻano ʻenehana a kū ʻole, ʻo kā mākou pahuhopu ke kau i ke kumu no ka ʻike nui a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i loko o ka pōʻaiapili o ke kemika a me nā ʻano ʻepekema ʻē aʻe e pili ana.

1. Introduction to acids and bases: nā manaʻo kumu

I loko o ke kemika, ʻo nā ʻakika a me nā kumu nā mea waiwai nui e pāʻani ana i kahi koʻikoʻi i nā ʻano hopena kemika. Ma kēia ʻāpana, e ʻimi mākou i nā manaʻo kumu o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, e hāʻawi ana i kumu paʻa no ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ke ʻano o kā lākou hana ʻana a me ka hana ʻana i nā kūlana like ʻole.

ʻO nā ʻakika nā mea e hoʻokuʻu ai i nā ion hydrogen (H+) ke hoʻoheheʻe ʻia i loko o ka wai. ʻO kēia mau ion hydrogen ke kuleana no nā waiwai ʻakika, e like me ka ʻono ʻawaʻawa a me ka hiki ke hoʻopau i kekahi mau mea. Ma waho aʻe o ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana i ka wai, hiki i nā waikawa ke hana pū me nā kumu, hana i nā huahana hopena a hoʻokuʻu i ke kinoea i ke kaʻina hana.

Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ʻo nā kumu he mau mea e hoʻokuʻu i nā ion hydroxyl (OH-) ke hoʻoheheʻe ʻia i ka wai. ʻO kēia mau iona hydroxyl ke kuleana no nā waiwai kumu, e like me ka ʻono ʻawaʻawa a me ka hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale i nā waikawa. Ma waho aʻe o ka hana ʻana me nā ʻakika, hiki i nā kumu ke hana pū me nā mea hoʻohui kemika ʻē aʻe, e like me nā momona momona, e hana ana i nā kinikona like ʻole.

ʻO ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo, ʻelua ʻano mea me nā waiwai kemika ʻokoʻa ka waikawa a me ka base. Hoʻokuʻu nā ʻakika i nā ion hydrogen, ʻoiai hoʻokuʻu nā kumu i nā ion hydroxyl. Hiki i nā mea ʻelua ke hana me kekahi i kekahi a me nā pūhui ʻē aʻe, e alakaʻi ana i kahi ākea o nā hopena kemika. Ma kēia ʻāpana, e ʻimi hou mākou i nā waiwai a me nā ʻano o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, a me ko lākou koʻikoʻi ma nā wahi like ʻole o ka kemika a me ke ola o kēlā me kēia lā.

2. Ke koʻikoʻi o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu ma ke kemika

ʻO nā ʻakika a me nā kumu nā mea koʻikoʻi i ke aʻo ʻana i ka kemika, no ka mea he koʻikoʻi ko lākou i nā hopena kemika. ʻO ka ʻakika he mea hiki ke hoʻokuʻu i nā ion hydrogen (H+) i loko o kahi haʻina, ʻoiai ʻo ke kumu he mea hiki ke ʻae i nā ion hydrogen a i ʻole ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana i nā ion hydroxide (OH-) i loko o kahi hopena.

ʻO kekahi o nā kumu koʻikoʻi o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i loko o ke kemika no ka mea ua komo lākou i ke koena acid-base, he mea nui ia no nā hopena kemika a me nā kaʻina biochemical. i loko o ke kino kanaka. Eia kekahi, loaʻa i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu nā waiwai kemika kikoʻī e hoʻohana pono ai i nā noi ʻoihana like ʻole, e like me ka hana ʻana i nā kemika, nā meaʻai, a me nā lāʻau lapaʻau.

He mea koʻikoʻi ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā waiwai a me nā ʻano o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i mea e wānana a hoʻopaʻa i nā hopena kemika. No ka hana ʻana i kēia, pono ia e nānā i nā mea e like me ka pH, hydrogen ion concentration, acid or basic strength and acid-base balance. Hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻano hana a me nā ʻenehana no ke ana ʻana a me ka nānā ʻana i kēia mau ʻāpana, e like me ka titrations, nā unahi pH, a me nā hōʻailona pH. ʻO kēia mau loiloi kikoʻī a kikoʻī e hōʻoiaʻiʻo i nā hopena hilinaʻi i ka noiʻi ʻana a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā waikawa a me nā kumu.

3. Wehewehe 'ana o nā hui 'akika-pa'a conjugate

Ua wehewehe ʻia ka hui ʻana o ka acid-base conjugate ma ke ʻano he ʻelua ʻano kemika e pili ana kekahi i kekahi ma o ka hoʻoili ʻana o kahi hydrogen ion (H+). Ma kēia ʻano hoʻohālikelike, hāʻawi ka ʻakika i ka H+ a lilo i kumu hoʻohui, ʻoiai e ʻae ke kumu i ka H+ a lilo i ʻakika conjugate.

Pono e hoʻomaopopo ʻia aia ka ʻakika conjugate a me ka base i loko o ka hoʻohālikelike kemika hoʻokahi i manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia he hui conjugate. Eia kekahi, pili ka hiki o ka waika ke hāʻawi i ka H+ i kona ʻakika, ʻoiai ʻo ka hiki i kahi waihona ke ʻae i ka H+ pili i kona kumu.

ʻO kahi laʻana maʻamau o ka hui ʻana o ka ʻakika-paʻa hui ʻia ka waika hydrochloric (HCl) a me ka ion chloride (Cl-). Ma kēia pane ʻana, ua manaʻo ʻia ka HCl i ka waika no ka mea hāʻawi ʻo ia i ka H+, aʻo ka Cl- ion ke kumu conjugate no ka mea ua ʻae ʻo ia i ka H+. ʻO kekahi laʻana, ʻo ia ka ʻakika acetic (CH3COOH) a me ka ion acetate (CH3COO-), kahi ʻo CH3COOH ka waikawa a ʻo CH3COO- ke kumu conjugate.

4. Ka pilina ma waena o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu hoʻohui

He mea koʻikoʻi ia i ka kemika acid-base. Hoʻokumu ʻia kahi kumu conjugate ke hāʻawi ka waikawa i ka proton a lilo i kumu. Pēlā nō, hoʻokumu ʻia ka ʻakika conjugate ke ʻae ke kumu i ka proton a lilo i ʻakika. Hōʻike ʻia kēia mau pilina e nā hoʻohālikelike kemika e hōʻike ana i nā loli i ke ʻano a me ke kau ʻana o ka pūhui. Pono e hoʻomaopopo i kēia pilina no ke aʻo ʻana i ka kemika a me e hoʻoponopono i nā pilikia pili i ke kaulike acid-base.

ʻO kahi laʻana maʻamau o ka hopena acid-base kahi i hoʻokumu ʻia ai nā ʻakika conjugate a me nā kumu, ʻo ia ka hopena ma waena o ka acetic acid (CH).₃COOH) a me ka ion hydroxide (OH^–). Ma kēia pane ʻana, hāʻawi ka ʻakika acetic i kahi proton i ka ion hydroxide, e hana ana i ka wai a me ka ion acetate (CH).₃COO^–). Ma kēia pane ʻana, hana ka ʻakika acetic ma ke ʻano he ʻakika, aʻo ka ion acetate e hana ma ke kumu conjugate.

I ka wā e hoʻoholo ai i nā pilikia e pili ana i nā ʻakika conjugate a me nā kumu, he mea nui e ʻike i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i loko o ka hoʻohālikelike kemika a hoʻoholo i nā loli i hiki mai i ko lākou mau hale a me nā uku. ʻO ke ala kūpono, ʻo ia ka hoʻomanaʻo ʻana e hāʻawi ka waika i kahi proton a lilo i kumu conjugate, ʻoiai e ʻae ke kumu i ka proton a lilo i ʻakika conjugate. Hoʻohui ʻia, hiki ke hoʻoholo ʻia ka ikaika pili o kahi conjugate acid a i ʻole base e ka paʻa o kona ʻano a me ka hiki ke ʻae a hāʻawi i nā protons. He mea koʻikoʻi kēia mau manaʻo e hoʻomaopopo a me kā lākou kuleana i ka kemika acid-base.

5. Nomenclature of acids: rules and examples

ʻO ka nomenclature ʻakika kahi mea nui i ka kemika organik, no ka mea hiki iā mākou ke ʻike pono a kapa inoa i nā ʻakika like ʻole. Aia ma lalo iho nā lula a me nā laʻana e hana pono i kēia nomenclature.

Nā rula no ka nomenclature o nā ʻakika:

• Loaʻa ka inoa o kahi ʻakika ma ka hoʻololi ʻana i ka hopena o ka inoa o ka anion pili. No ka laʻana, inā he -ate ka anion, loaʻa ka suffix -ate i ka waikawa e pili ana i ka hope -ico.
• Inā he -ite ka anion, loaʻa i ka waika ka suffix -ite ma kahi o -oso.
• Inā ʻo ka anion -ide, loaʻa i ka waika ka suffix -hydric ma kahi o -ide.

Nā laʻana o ka nomenclature acid:

• ʻAkika sulfuric (H₂SO₄): Ua hana ʻia mai ka anion sulfate (-ate) a ua pani ʻia ka hope -ate e -ico.
• Nitrous acid (HNO₂): Ua hana ʻia mai ka anion nitrite (-ito) a ua pani ʻia ka hope -ito e -oso.
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Ua hana ʻia mai ka anion chloride (-ide) a hoʻohui ʻia ka suffix -hydric.

Hiki ke paʻakikī ka nomenclature no ka nui o nā lula a me nā ʻokoʻa. Eia naʻe, e hahai ana i kēlā me kēia ʻanuʻu nā lula i hōʻike ʻia ma luna a ma ka hoʻomaʻamaʻa ʻana me nā laʻana, hiki ke haku i kēia ʻenehana. Pono e hoʻomanaʻo he mea nui ka nomenclature acid kūpono no ka kamaʻilio maikaʻi ʻana ma ke kula kemika.

6. Nomenclature kumu: nā lula a me nā laʻana

ʻO ka nomenclature kumu he mau lula i hoʻohana ʻia no ka inoa pololei a hōʻike i nā kumu kemika. ʻAe kēia mau lula iā mākou e hoʻomaopopo pololei i ka haku mele ʻana a me ke ʻano o nā kumu, he mea koʻikoʻi loa ia ma ke kula kemika.

ʻO ke kānāwai koʻikoʻi ma ka nomenclature kumu, ʻo ia ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka suffix "-uro" e hōʻike ai he kumu ia. He mea nui e hoʻomaopopo i nā kumu i haku ʻia me kahi cation metala a me kahi hui hydroxide (OH-). No ka inoa ʻana i kahi kumu, pono ʻoe e kākau i ka inoa o ka cation metala, a ma hope o ka huaʻōlelo "hydroxide." No ka laʻana, ua kapa ʻia ka hui NaOH he sodium hydroxide.

Aia nā ʻokoʻa i kēia lula, e like me kekahi mau kumu maʻamau. No ka laʻana, ʻo ka pūhui NH3 kahi kumu kaulana i kapa ʻia ʻo ammonia. ʻOiai ʻaʻole loaʻa ka suffix "-ide", ua manaʻo ʻia ʻo ia he kumu ma muli o kona ʻano a me nā waiwai kemika. I kēia mau hihia, he mea nui e aʻo i nā inoa maʻamau o nā kumu i mea e pale ai i ka huikau ke kapa pololei iā lākou.

7. Nā pane ma waena o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu: nā kumu kumu

ʻO nā pane ma waena o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu he mau kaʻina kemika kumu e pili ana i ka hoʻololi ʻana o nā protons mai kahi pūhui kemika i kekahi. Hoʻoponopono ʻia kēia mau hopena e nā loina i hoʻokumu ʻia, a he mea nui ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā manaʻo kumu no ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i ke kemika kumu waika. Ma kēia ʻāpana, e ʻimi mākou i nā kumu kumu o kēia mau hopena a pehea e hoʻohana ʻia ai i nā kūlana like ʻole.

ʻO kekahi o nā kumu kumu i ka hoʻololi ʻana ma waena o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, ʻo ia ka manaʻo o ke kaulike acid-base. Hoʻopili kēia i ka hoʻololi ʻana o nā protons ma waena o ka ʻakika a me nā pūhui kumu, me ka manaʻo e hiki i kahi kūlana o ke kaulike kemika. He mea nui e hoʻomaopopo i nā waiwai o nā waikawa a me nā kumu, e like me ko lākou ikaika ionic a me ko lākou hiki ke ʻae a hāʻawi i nā protons.

Eia kekahi, hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā hopena acid-base i nā ʻano like ʻole, ma muli o nā huahana hope i hana ʻia. ʻO kekahi o nā hopena maʻamau, ʻo ia ka neutralization, kahi e hana ai ka waika a me ke kumu i paʻakai a me ka wai; a me ka ionization, kahi i hoʻokaʻawale ʻia ai ka ʻakika a i ʻole ka base i loko o kona mau iona pili. Hiki ke hōʻike ʻia kēia mau ʻano hopena e nā hoʻohālikelike kemika kaulike, e ʻae iā mākou e wānana i nā huahana a hoʻomaopopo i ke ʻano o nā loli kemika.

8. Nā manaʻo e pili ana i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu: Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry a me Lewis

9. Nā ʻakika ikaika vs nā ʻakika nāwaliwali: nā ʻokoʻa a me nā laʻana

ʻO nā ʻakika ikaika a me nā ʻakika nāwaliwali ʻelua ʻano kemika me nā ʻano ʻokoʻa a me nā ʻano i loko o ka hoʻonā wai. ʻO ka ʻokoʻa nui ma waena o lākou aia i ko lākou hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale i nā ion H+ i mua o ka wai. Hiki i nā ʻakika ikaika ke hoʻokaʻawale loa, me ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana i ko lākou mau ion H+ a pau, ʻoiai ʻo nā ʻakika nāwaliwali e hoʻokaʻawale hapa wale nō, e hoʻokuʻu wale ana i kekahi o kā lākou H+ ion.

ʻO kahi laʻana o ka ʻakika ikaika ʻo ia ka waika hydrochloric (HCl), ka mea e hoʻokaʻawale loa i ka wai e hana i nā H+ a me nā Cl- ions. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ʻo kahi laʻana o ka ʻakika nāwaliwali ʻo ia ka acetic acid (CH3COOH), ka mea i hoʻokaʻawale ʻia i loko o ka wai, e hoʻokuʻu ana i kekahi mau ion H+ akā mālama mau i ka hapa nui o kāna mau mole.

ʻO ka ʻokoʻa o ka hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale ma waena o nā ʻakika ikaika a me nā ʻakika nāwaliwali ka hopena i ko lākou ʻano kemika a me ko lākou hiki ke hana me nā mea ʻē aʻe. He haʻahaʻa ka pH o nā ʻakika ikaika a he ʻino, ʻoiai ʻoi aku ka pH o nā waikawa nāwaliwali a ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi o ka corrosive. Hoʻohui hou, ʻoi aku ka ikaika o nā waikawa ikaika a hiki ke hoʻoheheʻe i kekahi mau metala, ʻoiai ʻoi aku ka haʻahaʻa o ka ʻakika nāwaliwali.

I ka hōʻuluʻulu manaʻo, ʻokoʻa nā ʻakika ikaika a me nā ʻakika nāwaliwali i ko lākou hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale i nā ion H+ i loko o ka wai. Hoʻokaʻawale loa nā ʻakika ikaika, e hoʻokuʻu ana i kā lākou mau ion H+ a pau, ʻoiai ʻo nā ʻakika nāwaliwali e wehe hapa wale. He hopena kēia ʻokoʻa i ka hana kemika a me ka hiki ke corrosive o kēia mau ʻakika.

10. Nā kumu ikaika vs nā kumu nāwaliwali: nā hiʻohiʻona a me nā hiʻohiʻona

Hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā kumu i loko o ʻelua mau ʻāpana nui: nā kumu ikaika a me nā kumu nāwaliwali. ʻO nā kumu ikaika ka mea e hoʻokaʻawale loa i ka wai, e hoʻokuʻu ana i ka nui o nā ion hydroxide (OH-) i loko o ka hopena. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, hoʻokaʻawale ʻia nā kumu nāwaliwali, hoʻokuʻu wale i kahi liʻiliʻi o nā ion hydroxide.

ʻO kahi hiʻohiʻona koʻikoʻi o nā kumu ikaika ko lākou hiki ke hoʻokaʻawale i nā waikawa. me ka pono a wikiwiki. ʻO nā laʻana o nā kumu ikaika he sodium hydroxide (NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), a me calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). ʻO kēia mau kumu he mea ʻino a ʻona, no laila pono e mālama ʻia me ka akahele.

Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi o nā kumu nāwaliwali a ʻoi aku ka lohi a me ka palupalu o kā lākou hana. ʻO nā laʻana maʻamau o nā kumu nāwaliwali, ʻo ia ka ammonia (NH3), calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a me ka sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). ʻIke pinepine ʻia kēia mau kumu i ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻana i nā huahana a me nā lāʻau lapaʻau ma muli o kā lākou hana maʻalahi a liʻiliʻi i ka corrosive i hoʻohālikelike ʻia me nā kumu ikaika.

11. Acid-base kaulike: nā manaʻo nui a me nā helu

ʻO ke koena acid-base kahi manaʻo kumu i ka kemika a me ka biochemistry. E pili ana i ka hiki o ka hopena ke mālama i ka pH paʻa, ʻo ia hoʻi, mālama i ke kaulike ma waena o H+ a me OH- ion. No ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i kēia kaulike, pono e kamaʻāina i kekahi mau manaʻo koʻikoʻi a aʻo i ka hana ʻana i nā helu pili.

ʻO kekahi o nā manaʻo koʻikoʻi o ke kaulike ʻakika-paʻa, ʻo ia ke kaulike kaulike, Ka. Hoʻohana ʻia kēia mau no ke ana ʻana i ka ʻakika a i ʻole ke kumu o kahi mea. ʻOi ke kiʻekiʻe o ka waiwai Ka, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka ʻakika o ka mea. ʻO ka ʻokoʻa, inā haʻahaʻa ka waiwai o Ka, ʻoi aku ka nui o ka waiwai. Pono e hoʻomanaʻo e hiki ke loli ka waiwai o Ka ma muli o nā kūlana i loaʻa ai ka waiwai.

No ka hana ʻana i nā helu e pili ana i ke koena acid-base, pono ʻoe e ʻike i kekahi mau ʻano hana a me nā mea hana pono. No ka laʻana, ʻo ka Henderson-Hasselbalch equation he mea maʻamau i hoʻohana ʻia no ka helu ʻana i ka pH o kahi hopena ʻakika a kumu paha. Ua helu ʻia kēia hoohalike me ka hoʻohana ʻana i ka logarithm o ka quotient ma waena o ka neʻe ʻana o ka ʻakika a me ka ʻike ʻana o kona kumu conjugate. Eia kekahi, aia nā mea hana pūnaewele a me nā polokalamu e hiki ke maʻalahi i kēia mau helu ʻana, e like me ka pH a me nā calculators pKa.

12. pH a me ka pOH: ke ana o ka waika a me ke kumu o ka ha'ina

El pH a me ka pOH ʻElua mau manaʻo kumu i ka kemika e ana i ka ʻakika a me ke kumu o kahi hoʻonā. ʻO ka pH e pili ana i ka neʻe ʻana o nā ion hydrogen (H+) i loko o kahi haʻina, a ʻo ka pOH e pili ana i ka neʻe ʻana o nā ion hydroxide (OH-). Hele ka pālākiō pH mai ka 0 (kaʻakika loa) a i ka 14 (ke kumu nui), ʻo ka pālākiō pOH ka hoʻohuli a hele mai ka 14 (kaʻakika loa) a i ka 0 (ke kumu loa).

Hana ʻia ke ana ʻana o ka pH a me ka pOH me ka mika pH, kahi mea hana e ana i ka hana o nā ion hydrogen i loko o kahi hopena. No ke ana ʻana i ka pH o kahi hopena, e hoʻokomo i ka electrode o ka mika pH i loko o ka hopena a kali i ka paʻa ʻana o ka heluhelu. Loaʻa ka heluhelu ma ka pale o ka pH mika a ua hōʻike ʻia ma ke ʻano he helu decimal.

No ka helu ʻana i ka pOH o kahi haʻina, hoʻohana ʻia ke kumu pOH = 14 - pH. Loaʻa kēia ʻano kumu mai ka pilina logarithmic ma waena o ka hoʻopaʻa ʻana o ka hydrogen a me nā ion hydroxide i loko o ka wai. Ke loaʻa ka waiwai pOH, hiki ke hoʻoholo inā he ʻakika, kū ʻole a kumu paha ka hopena. ʻO ka hopena me ka pH liʻiliʻi ma lalo o 7 he ʻakika, ʻo ka hopena me ka pH o 7 he kūʻokoʻa, a ʻo ka hopena me ka pH ʻoi aku ma mua o 7 he kumu.

13. Nā hana o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu i ke ola o kēlā me kēia lā

He ʻokoʻa lākou a he kuleana koʻikoʻi lākou i nā ʻano like ʻole o kā mākou hana i kēlā me kēia lā.

ʻO ka mea mua, hoʻohana nui ʻia nā waikawa a me nā kumu i ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe a me ka disinfecting i ko mākou kaiapuni. Hoʻokumu ʻia nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe hale e like me nā detergents, nā kopa a me nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe me nā waikawa a me nā kumu e kōkua ai i ka wehe ʻana i ka lepo a me nā germs. No ka laʻana, ʻo nā waikawa citric i loko o nā mea hoʻomaʻemaʻe lumi kaukau e kōkua i ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana i ka momona a me ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻana i nā ʻili, aʻo ka ammonia, kahi kumu, hoʻohana ʻia e hoʻomaʻemaʻe i ka papahele a me ke aniani.

Eia kekahi, hoʻohana ʻia nā waikawa a me nā kumu i ka ʻoihana meaʻai. Hana ʻia nā ʻakika ma ke ʻano he mea mālama i nā meaʻai a me nā mea inu, e kōkua ana i ka pale ʻana i ka ulu ʻana o nā hua bacteria ʻino a hoʻolōʻihi i ke ola o nā huahana. Ma ka ʻaoʻao ʻē aʻe, hoʻohana ʻia nā kumu e like me ka baking soda i ka kuke ʻana i ka meaʻai, ʻoiai lākou e kōkua i ka piʻi ʻana a me ka hoʻoulu ʻana i ka palaoa a me ka palaoa.

14. Hoʻohana ʻenehana a me ka ʻenehana o nā waikawa a me nā kumu

He nui lākou a he kuleana koʻikoʻi ma nā kaʻina hana like ʻole. ʻO kekahi o nā wahi i hoʻohana ʻia ai nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, ʻo ia ka ʻoihana kemika, kahi i hoʻohana ʻia ai lākou ma ke ʻano he catalysts i nā hopena kemika e hoʻolōʻihi i ko lākou wikiwiki. Hoʻohana ʻia lākou i ka synthesis o nā huahana kemika, e like me ka hana ʻana i nā mea kanu, nā plastics a me nā detergents.

ʻO kekahi noi nui o nā waikawa a me nā kumu i ka ʻoihana ma ke kahua o ka metallurgy. Hoʻohana ʻia nā ʻakika e hoʻomaʻemaʻe a hoʻopau i nā ʻili metala, ʻoiai hoʻohana ʻia nā kumu e hoʻokaʻawale i nā waikawa i loaʻa i loko o ka wai ʻino i hana ʻia e ka ʻoihana metallurgical.

Ma ke kahua ʻenehana, pāʻani pū kekahi i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu. No ka laʻana, i loko o ka ʻoihana semiconductor, hoʻohana ʻia nā waikawa a me nā kumu e hana i ka etching maloʻo i ka hana ʻana o nā kaapuni i hoʻohui ʻia. Pēlā nō, i ka ʻoihana meaʻai, hoʻohana ʻia nā waikawa a me nā kumu i mea hoʻohui e hoʻomaikaʻi ai i ka ʻono, ke ʻano a me ka mālama ʻana. o ka meaʻai.

I ka hōʻuluʻulu ʻana, hoʻohana nui ʻia nā waikawa a me nā kumu i nā ʻano hana ʻenehana a me nā ʻenehana. ʻO kā lākou versatility a me nā waiwai kemika e hoʻolilo iā lākou i mau mea pono no ka synthesis kemika, ka hoʻomaʻemaʻe ʻana i ka metala, ka hana kaapuni hoʻohui, a me ka hoʻomaikaʻi ʻana i ka meaʻai.

I ka hopena, ʻo ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā manaʻo kumu a me nā loina o nā ʻakika a me nā kumu, a me nā hui conjugate a me kā lākou nomenclature, he mea nui ia no ka poʻe e pili ana i ka ʻoihana kemika a me nā ʻano ʻē aʻe e pili ana. ʻO kēia ʻike e hiki ai i nā ʻepekema ke hoʻomaopopo i nā kaʻina hana kemika e hana nei ma ke ʻano, e hoʻolālā i nā hoʻokolohua kūpono a hoʻohana i kēia mau manaʻo ma nā wahi like ʻole e like me ka pharmacology, lāʻau lapaʻau a i ʻole ka ʻoihana meaʻai.

ʻO ke aʻo ʻana i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu kumu no ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka kemika a ua ʻae iā mākou e hoʻomaopopo i nā hanana kumu e like me ka neutralization a me ka hoʻokumu ʻana i nā paʻakai. Eia kekahi, ʻo ia ke kumu no ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā manaʻo holomua e like me ka Lewis theory of acids and bases a me ka Brønsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases.

Hāʻawi ka acid and base nomenclature i kahi ala ʻōnaehana a pololei e ʻike ai a inoa i kēia mau mea kemika. Ma o ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā lula kikoʻī, hiki ke hāʻawi i kahi inoa kūʻokoʻa i kēlā me kēia hui, no laila e hoʻomaʻamaʻa i kona ʻike a kamaʻilio ʻana i waena o nā ʻepekema.

I ka hōʻuluʻulu ʻana, pono ke aʻo ʻana i nā ʻakika a me nā kumu ma ke kahua o ka kemika a hāʻawi i kahi kumu ʻike paʻa no ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana a me ka hoʻohana ʻana i nā loina kemika ma nā wahi like ʻole. ʻO ka hoʻomaopopo ʻana i nā manaʻo kumu, conjugate pairs a me ka nomenclature o kēia mau pūhui e hōʻoia i ka hana ʻepekema paʻakikī a maikaʻi, e ʻae i ka holomua i ka noiʻi a me ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā noi hou no ka pono o ke kaiāulu.