Kugovera kwemagetsi ipfungwa yakakosha muchemistry uye fizikisi, uye kuibata kunoda kunzwisisa kwakasimba kwemisimboti. Kuti uedze ruzivo rwako uye usimbise hunyanzvi hwako, takagadzirira nhevedzano yegumi nemaviri emagetsi ekugovera maitiro. Muchinyorwa chino, tichaongorora chimwe nechimwe chezviitwa izvi zvakadzama, tichitarisa pamashandisiro azvo anoshanda uye nekupa tsananguro dzakajeka uye dzakapfupika dzekugadzirisa kwavo. Gadzirira kupikisa kunzwisisa kwako kweiyi nyaya yakakosha uye uvandudze hunyanzvi hwako hwekugovera zvemagetsi!
1. Nhanganyaya yekugovera kwemagetsi mu quantum theory
Kugovanisa maerekitironi mu quantum theory ipfungwa yakakosha yekunzwisisa kuti maerekitironi akarongwa sei kutenderedza nucleus muatomu. Muchikamu chino, tichaongorora misimboti yemusoro wenyaya iyi uye tidzidze maitiro ekuashandisa mumamiriro akasiyana.
Danho rekutanga pakunzwisisa kugovanisa maerekitironi nderekunzwisisa chirevo chePauli chekusabatanidzwa, chinoti hapana maerekitironi maviri muatomu imwe chete anogona kuva neseti imwechete yenhamba dzehuwandu. Izvi zvinoreva kuti maerekitironi anofanira kugara akasiyana siyana simba uye sublevels muatomu.
Chechipiri, zvakakosha kuti uzive mutemo waAufbau, unotaura kutevedzana uko orbitals inozadzwa muatomu. Mutemo uyu unotibatsira kuona marongerwo ayo maerekitironi anogovaniswa mumatanho esimba akasiyana uye sublevels. Semuenzaniso, tinoziva kuti nhanho 1 inozadza isati yasvika 2, zvichingodaro.
2. Mafungiro ekutanga ekugoverwa kwemagetsi mumakemikari
Kugoverwa kwemagetsi mukemikari chinhu chakakosha chekunzwisisa chimiro uye maitiro emaatomu nemamorekuru. Uku kugovera kunogadza kuti maerekitironi akarongwa sei padyo neatomu nucleus, achitevera mimwe mitemo nemisimboti. Muchikamu chino, isu tichaongorora mamwe ekutanga pfungwa nezvemagetsi kugovera mukemikari.
Imwe yemafungiro akakosha mukugovera kwemagetsi ndeye Aufbau musimboti, iyo inotaura kuti maerekitironi anowedzerwa kune yakaderera simba orbitals kutanga isati yazadza yakakwirira simba orbitals. Izvi zvinoreva kuti maerekitironi akazadzwa muhurongwa kuwedzera simba, kutevera orbital dhayagiramu uye kuremekedza Hund mutemo, iyo inoti maerekitironi anozadza orbitals mumwe uye norutivi pamberi pairing.
Kumiririra kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu, kushandiswa kwemagetsi kunoshandiswa, izvo zvinoratidza kuti maerekitironi anogoverwa sei mumasimba akasiyana-siyana uye sublevels. Semuenzaniso, magadzirirwo emagetsi eatomu reokisijeni i1s² 2s² 2p⁴, izvo zvinoratidza kuti ine maerekitironi maviri padanho rekutanga, maerekitironi maviri padanho rechipiri, uye maerekitironi mana padanho repiri.
3. Ndezvipi zviitwa zvemagetsi zvekugovera uye nei zvakakosha?
Maekitironi ekugovera maekisesaizi chinhu chakakosha mukemistry kuti unzwisise kuti maerekitironi akarongwa sei muatomu. Aya maekisesaizi anotibvumira kuona kugadzirwa kwemagetsi kwechimwe nechimwe chinhu uye kunzwisisa kuti orbitals inozadzwa sei nemaerekitironi.
Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwakakosha nekuti kunotitendera kufanotaura kemikari uye zvemuviri zvezvinhu. Nekuziva kugadziridzwa kwemagetsi kwechimwe chinhu, tinogona kuona reactivity yayo, kugona kwayo kuumba zvisungo zvemakemikari uye maitiro ayo munzvimbo dzakasiyana.
Pane nzira dzakasiyana dzekugadzirisa maekisesaizi aya, asi ese anotevera nhevedzano yematanho akafanana. Kutanga, unofanira kuziva mitemo yekuzadza orbitals, yakadai sekutonga kwaAufbau, mutemo waPauli wekuregererwa, uye mutemo waHund. Iyo electron configuration inobva yarongwa padhiyagiramu kana kushandisa tsamba uye nhamba notation. Pakupedzisira, inotariswa kuti kugovera kunoenderana nemitemo yekuzadza uye kuti nhamba yese yemagetsi ndeyechokwadi.
4. Dzvanya ruzivo rwako: 12 magetsi ekugovera maitiro ekuedza hunyanzvi hwako
Muchikamu chino, tinopa gumi nemaviri anonetsa emagetsi ekugovera maitiro ayo anoedza hunyanzvi hwako hwemakemikari. Imwe neimwe yezviitwa izvi ichakunetsa kuti ushandise ruzivo rwako nezve kugovanisa maerekitironi mumatanho akasiyana uye sublevels yeatomu. Kwete chete ivo vanozokubatsira iwe kuongorora izvo zvekutanga, asi ivo zvakare vanokupa iwe kudzidzira kugadzirisa matambudziko emagetsi ekugovera. zvinobudirira.
Pachiitwa chimwe nechimwe, tichakupa iwe a nhanho nhanho yakadzama nzira yekugadzirisa dambudziko. Uye zvakare, isu tinokupa iwe matipi uye mienzaniso kufambisa kunzwisisa kwako. Kana iwe uchida kuongororwa nekukurumidza kwekutanga kwekugovera kwemagetsi, unogona kushandisa edu anopindirana tutorials, ayo achakupa tarisiro yakazara yemusoro wenyaya.
Mukuwedzera, tinokurudzira kushandisa zvishandiso zvakadai seperiodic tables uye Lewis diagrams kuti uone kugoverwa kwemagetsi zvakajeka. Zvishandiso izvi zvinokubatsira kuziva nhamba yemaerekitironi padanho rega rega uye sublevel. Rangarira kuti kiyi yekugadzirisa zviitwa izvi ndeyekunyatsoongorora magadzirirwo emagetsi eatomu yega yega uye kutevedzera misimboti yakamiswa neAufbau musimboti, Hund's rule uye mutemo wepamusoro spin kuwanda.
5. Exercise 1: Kuparadzirwa kwemagetsi kweatomu rehydrogen
Muchiitwa ichi, isu tichadzidza kuona kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yehydrogen. Kugovaniswa kwemagetsi kunotiudza kuti maerekitironi anogovaniswa sei mumatanho esimba akasiyana uye ma sublevels eatomu. Izvi zvakakosha pakunzwisisa zvimiro uye maitiro ehydrogen.
Kuti tione kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yehydrogen, tinofanira kutevera mamwe matanho. Kutanga, tinofanira kuziva nhamba yeatomu yehydrogen, inova 1. Zvadaro, tinogona kushandisa mutemo weAufbau, unotaura kuti maerekitironi anozadza pasi pesimba rekutanga, achitevera nheyo yeHund yehuwandu hwakawanda.
Tichatanga nekuzadza nhanho yekutanga, iyo inogona kuva nemaerekitironi maviri. Chikamu chinotevera chinhanho chechipiri, chinogonawo kubata maerekitironi maviri. Pakupedzisira, nhanho 1 inogona kuva nemaerekitironi masere. Tichishandisa ruzivo urwu, tinogona kuona kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yehydrogen.
6. Basa rechipiri: Kugovera kwemagetsi kweatomu kabhoni
Iyo kabhoni atomu chimwe chezvinhu zvakakosha muorganic chemistry. Kugoverwa kwayo kwemagetsi kunotarisisa nzira iyo maatomu ekabhoni anosanganisirwa nezvimwe zvinhu. Kuti uone kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu kabhoni, mamwe anofanirwa kuteverwa matanho makuru.
Chekutanga, zvakakosha kuyeuka kuti carbon atomu ine 6 maerekitironi. Maerekitironi aya akagoverwa muzvikamu zvakasiyana zvesimba zvinonzi magoko. Chekutanga simba mwero, kana goko 1, anogona kuva anosvika maviri maerekitironi. Chechipiri chesimba, kana goko 2, inogona kuva nemaerekitironi masere. Kuti uone kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwekabhoni atomu, aya mabhomba anofanira kuzadzwa kuitira kuwedzera simba.
Iyo kabhoni atomu ine zvinotevera zvemagetsi kugovera: 1s2 2s2 2p2. Izvi zvinoreva kuti maerekitironi maviri ekutanga anowanikwa mugoko 2, mune 1s orbital. Maerekitironi maviri anotevera anowanikwa mugoko rechipiri, mu 1s orbital. Maerekitironi maviri ekupedzisira anowanikwa mugoko 2, mu 2p orbital. Uku kugoverwa kwemagetsi kunotitaurira kuti maerekitironi akarongwa sei mumhando dzakasiyana dzeatomu kabhoni.
7. Basa rechitatu: Kugovera kwemagetsi kweioni yeklorini
Kuti tione kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweiyo chlorine ion, tinofanira kutanga tayeuka kuti chlorine ion, Cl-, yakawana electron, zvinoreva kuti Iko zvino yava nekuwedzera kwemhosva yakaipa. Izvi zvinokanganisa nzira iyo maerekitironi anogoverwa kuyambuka simba reatomu. Pazasi pane nhanho nhanho nzira yekugadzirisa dambudziko iri:
1. Ziva nhamba yeatomu yeklorini patafura ye periodic. Nhamba yeatomiki yeklorini igumi nenomwe, zvichireva kuti ine maerekitironi gumi nemanomwe munzvimbo yayo yepakutanga.
2. Mushure mekuwana erekitironi imwe, chlorine ikozvino ine maerekitironi gumi nemasere. Kuti uone kugoverwa kwemaerekitironi, yeuka kuti maerekitironi anozadza mazinga esimba mune imwe nzira: 18, 2, 8, 8. Izvi zvinoreva kuti maerekitironi maviri ekutanga anozadza chiyero chesimba 1, 2 anotevera anozadza chiyero chesimba 1. chesimba 8 , 2 dzinotevera dzinozadza nhanho yesimba 8 uye erekitironi yekupedzisira inotora nhanho yesimba 3. Ziva kuti mazinga esimba akakwirira ari kure kubva mugotsi uye ane simba rakakura rekubata maerekitironi.
3. Nokudaro, kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwe chlorine ion kwaizova kunotevera: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6. Mhedzisiro iyi inotitaurira kuti chlorine ine maerekitironi gumi nemasere akagoverwa mumazinga akasiyana esimba. Mukuwedzera, nekuva ion ine mutero we -18, inowana kugadzikana kukuru nekuda kwekuzadzwa kwakakwana kwesimba rayo rekunze kwesimba.
8. Basa rechina: Kugovera kwemagetsi kweatomu yeokisijeni
Atomu yeokisijeni ine nhamba yeatomu ye8, iyo inoratidza kuti ine maerekitironi masere mukugadzirisa kwayo kwemagetsi. Kuti tione kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yeokisijeni, tinofanira kutevera nhanho-nhanho. Chokutanga pane zvose, tinofanira kuyeuka kuti maerekitironi akagoverwa mumasimba akasiyana-siyana, anozivikanwa sehombodo. Goko rekutanga riri padyo nenyukiresi rinogona kuva nemaerekitironi maviri, rechipiri kusvika maerekitironi masere, uye rechitatu kusvika maerekitironi masere.
Kune atomu yeokisijeni, tinotanga nekuzadza goko riri pedyo nenyukiresi, rinova goko rekutanga. Tinoisa maerekitironi maviri mugoko iri. Zvadaro, tinoenda kune goko rinotevera uye toisa maerekitironi matanhatu asara. Izvi zvinotipa kugovanisa maerekitironi kwe2 muchikamu chekutanga uye 6 pachikamu chechipiri. Imwe nzira yekumiririra iyi ndeyekunyora magadzirirwo emagetsi eokisijeni se2s2 2s2 2p4.
Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yeokisijeni kunogona kuonekwa sekugadzirisa umo maerekitironi anozadza mabhomba akasiyana-siyana uye ma subshells maererano nekutonga kwaAufbau. Zvakakosha kutaura kuti kugoverwa kwemagetsi uku kunotibatsira kunzwisisa kuti kushajisa kwakashata kwemaerekitironi kwakarongwa sei mukati meatomu reokisijeni uye kuti anodyidzana sei nemamwe maatomu mumakemikari bond. Kuve neruzivo urwu kwakakosha kuti unzwisise magadzirirwo emakemikari uye zvimiro zveokisijeni mukuita kwakasiyana kwemakemikari.
9. Exercise 5: Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweion iron (Fe2+)
Muchiito ichi, tichadzidza kuona kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweion iron (Fe2 +). Simbi chinhu chekuchinja uye gadziriso yayo yemagetsi inogona kutariswa uchishandisa iyo aufbau mutemo uye iyo Pauli yekusabatanidzwa musimboti.
Kutanga, tinofanira kuyeuka kuti iron ine nhamba yeatomu ye26, zvinoreva kuti ine maerekitironi makumi maviri nematanhatu. Nekurasikirwa nemaerekitironi maviri kugadzira iyo Fe26 + ion, kugovera kwayo kwemagetsi kuchachinja.
Danho rekutanga nderekunyora gadziriso yemagetsi yeatomu yesimbi isina kwayakarerekera. Izvi zvinoitwa uchishandisa dhayagiramu yezinga resimba kana mutemo waAufbau. Iyo yemagetsi gadziriso yekusarerekera Fe ndeye 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6. Zvino, tinofanira kufunga kuti simbi(II) ion akarasa maerekitironi maviri, saka tinofanira kubvisa okunze maerekitironi, tichitevera Pauli kusabatanidzwa musimboti. Iko kugoverwa kwemagetsi kuchave 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6. Uku kugoverwa kwemagetsi ndiko kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwesimbi (II) ion..
10. Exercise 6: Kuparadzirwa kwemagetsi kwe calcium ion (Ca2+)
Muchiitiko ichi, kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwe calcium ion (Ca2 +) ichaongororwa. Kuti ugadzirise dambudziko iri, zvinodikanwa kuti unzwisise kugadzirwa kwemagetsi kwe calcium uye kuti inoshandurwa sei kuita ion yakanaka.
Calcium ine nhamba yeatomiki inosvika makumi maviri, zvichireva kuti ine maerekitironi makumi maviri mukusarerekera kwayo. Iyo yemagetsi gadziriso yecalcium munzvimbo yayo yepasi ndeye 20s20 1s2 2p2 2s6 3p2 3s6. Zvisinei, apo calcium inorasa maerekitironi maviri kuumba Ca4+ ion, kugovera kwayo kwemagetsi kunoshanduka.
Patinorasikirwa nemaerekitironi maviri kubva mugomba re 4s, kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwe calcium ion kunova 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6. Izvi zvinoreva kuti iyo calcium ion ine chimiro chemagetsi chakafanana neiyo inokudzwa gasi argon. Nekunzwisisa uku kugoverwa kwemagetsi, tinogona kunzwisisa maitiro uye maitiro eiyo calcium ion mukuita kwemakemikari uye mukudyidzana kwayo nemamwe marudzi emakemikari.
11. Basa rechinomwe: Kuparadzirwa kwemagetsi kweatomu renitrogen
Kugadzirisa kugovera maerekitironi kweatomu renitrogen, tinofanira kutevera mamwe matanho akakosha. Chekutanga, zvakakosha kuyeuka kuti atomu yenitrogen ine nhamba yeatomu ye7, zvichireva kuti ine maerekitironi manomwe.
Nhanho inotevera ndeyekuona marongero ayo orbitals anozadzwa nawo. Kuti tiite izvi, tinoshandisa iyo aufbau musimboti, iyo inotaura kuti orbitals yakazadzwa mukukwira kurongeka kwesimba. Zvadaro, maerekitironi anogoverwa mu orbitals achitevera aufbau musimboti kusvikira maerekitironi apera.
Panyaya yenitrogen, tinotanga nekuzadza iyo 1s orbital, iyo inogona kubata huwandu hwema 2 electrons. Zvadaro, tinozadza 2s orbital nemamwe maerekitironi maviri. Zvadaro, tinozadza matatu p orbitals (2px, 2py uye 2pz) nemaerekitironi matatu asara. Chekupedzisira, tinoongorora kuti tashandisa maerekitironi manomwe aripo uye tazadza ese orbitals kubva pasi pasi kusvika pakakwirira simba.
12. Basa rechisere: Kuparadzirwa kwemagetsi kweatomu resarufa
Sulfur chinhu chemakemikari chine nhamba yeatomu 16 uye chiratidzo S. Kuti uone kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu resarufa, zvakakosha kuziva chimiro cheatomu uye kugadzirisa kwemagetsi. Kugadziriswa kwemagetsi kwesarufa kunowanikwa nekutevera mutemo weAufbau diagram, iyo inotaura kuti maerekitironi eatomu akazadzwa mukuwedzera kurongeka kwesimba.
Nhanho yekutanga yekuona kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu yesarufa ndeyekuziva nhamba yayo yeatomu, iyo munyaya iyi ndeye 16. Kubva ipapo, maerekitironi anofanira kugoverwa kune zvakasiyana-siyana zvesimba: nhanho 1 inogona kuva ne 2 electrons , level 2 maerekitironi anosvika masere uye nhanho 8 kusvika ku3 maerekitironi. Zvichitevera mutemo uyu, maerekitironi anopihwa kubva kumusoro kusvika kune yakaderera simba kusvika nhamba yeatomu yasvika.
Munyaya yesarufa, kugoverwa kwemagetsi kunogona kumiririrwa sezvinotevera: 1s22s22p63s23p4. Izvi zvinoratidza kuti nhanho 1 ine maerekitironi maviri, nhanho yechipiri ine maerekitironi masere, nhanho 2 ine maerekitironi maviri ari mus sublevel uye mana maerekitironi mup sublevel. Zvakakosha kuziva kuti nhamba yemaerekitironi panhanho imwe neimwe inofanira kuenzana nenhamba yeatomu yechinhu.
13. Exercise 9: Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweiyo magnesium ion (Mg2+)
Kana iyo magnesium ion (Mg2 +) yakaumbwa, zvakakosha kuziva kugovera kwayo kwemagetsi kuti unzwisise zviri nani hunhu hwayo makemikari. Kugovaniswa kwemagetsi kunotsanangura kuti maerekitironi anogovaniswa sei mumagoko akasiyana uye ma subshells eatomu kana ayoni. Panyaya yeiyo magnesium ion, tinogona kuona kugovera kwayo kwemagetsi tichishandisa musimboti wekuvaka kana kuwana iyo yemagetsi kumisikidzwa.
Iyo magnesium ion (Mg2+) ine chaji yakanaka ye2+, zvichireva kuti yarasa maerekitironi maviri kana ichienzaniswa neatomu yemagnesium isina kwayakarerekera. Izvi zvinoreva kuti ikozvino yava nemaerekitironi gumi panzvimbo pekutanga gumi nemaviri. Kuti titarise kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweMg10 +, isu tinofanirwa kugovera aya gumi maerekitironi kune akasiyana magoko uye subshells zvinoenderana nemusimboti wekuvaka.
Tinotanga nekuisa maerekitironi kugoko remukati-kati, rinova rekutanga (n = 1). Sezvo maerekitironi achizadza mukukwira kwesimba, erekitironi yekutanga inopihwa kune 1s sublevel. Zvadaro, maerekitironi masere anotevera anoiswa kugoko rechipiri (n = 2), kune 2s uye 2p sublevels. Nekudaro, sezvo iyo magnesium ion yakarasa maerekitironi maviri, isu tine maerekitironi maviri asara kuti tigovane. Izvi zvinoiswa mu2s sublevel, zvichisiya 2p sublevel isina chinhu. Naizvozvo, kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweiyo magnesium ion (Mg2+) ndeye 1s2 2s2.
14. Exercise 10: Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu ye lithiamu
Iyo lithium atomu ine chaiyo yemagetsi configuration inotarisa kuti maerekitironi ayo anogoverwa sei mumhando dzakasiyana dzesimba uye sublevels. Kuti tione kugoverwa kwemagetsi uku, tinogona kushandisa mutemo weAufbau uye mitemo yeHund uye kuwanda kwehuwandu hwemitemo yakaenzana yesimba.
Iyo yemagetsi kumisikidza ye lithium atomu inogona kutsanangurwa nekutevera anotevera matanho:
1. Ziva nhamba yeatomu ye lithium, inova 3. Izvi zvinotiudza kuti lithiamu atomu ine maerekitironi matatu.
2. Tsvaga maerekitironi munzvimbo dzakasiyana dzesimba uye sublevels. Simba rekutanga, rinozivikanwa seK level, rinogona kunge riine maerekitironi maviri, ukuwo rechipiri resimba, rinozivikanwa seL level, rinogona kunge riine maerekitironi masere.
3. Isa maerekitironi muchikamu cheK kutanga Lithium ine erekitironi imwe chete muchikamu cheK.
4. Isa maerekitironi asara muchikamu cheL Lithium ine maerekitironi maviri muchikamu cheL.
5. Kugoverwa kwemagetsi kwe lithiamu atomu i1s² 2s¹. Izvi zvinoratidza kuti lithium ine erekitironi rimwe paK level uye maerekitironi maviri ari paL level.
Zvakakosha kuziva kuti kugoverwa kwemagetsi kweatomu ye lithiamu kunotevera mitemo ye quantum mechanics, iyo inotitaurira kuti maitiro akasiyana-siyana emagetsi uye sublevels anozadzwa sei. Kugadziriswa kwemagetsi kwe lithium kunotipa ruzivo pamusoro pekuparadzirwa kwema electrons ayo uye kugadzikana kwayo mumamiriro ayo epasi.
Muchidimbu, iwo emagetsi ekugovera maekisesaizi anoratidzwa chinhu chakakosha chekuyedza nekusimbisa ruzivo rwako mune ino yakakosha ndima yekemesitiri. Kuburikidza navo, wakawana mukana wekujairana nemitemo inodzora kugovaniswa kwemaerekitironi mumatanho akasiyana uye ma sublevels emaatomu.
Nekugadzirisa zviitwa izvi, wakakwanisa kuyedza kugona kwako kushandisa misimboti yakakosha yekugovera zvemagetsi, sekutonga kwaAufbau, Pauli's exclusion principle, uye Hund's rule. Pamusoro pezvo, wakadzidza kushandisa tafura yeperiodic kuona huwandu hwemaerekitironi padanho rega rega uye sublevel.
Izvo zvakakosha kuratidza kuti kugovera kwemagetsi kwakakosha pakunzwisisa zvimiro uye maitiro emakemikari zvinhu. Nekugona pfungwa uye hunyanzvi hwakabatana neaya maekisesaizi, iwe uchave wakagadzirira kufambisira mberi kunzwisisa kwako kweatomu chimiro uye chemistry zvakazara.
Rangarira kuti kugara uchidzidzira uye kugadzirisa zviitwa zvakakosha pakusimbisa ruzivo rwako. Isu tinokurudzira kuti urambe uchiongorora maekisesaizi akafanana uye kuongorora mune zvimwe zvinhu zvine chekuita nekugovera kwemagetsi. Izvi zvinokutendera kuti uvandudze hunyanzvi hwako uye kukudziridza hwaro hwakasimba mumunda zvakakosha kufanana nemakemikari.
Mukupedzisa, kugadzirisa aya emagetsi ekugovera maekisesaizi kwakupa iwe mukana wekuyedza ruzivo rwako uye hunyanzvi mundima iyi yakakosha yechemistry. Nekuenderera mberi nekudzidzira uye kuongorora nyaya iyi, iwe unenge uri munzira yako yekuve nyanzvi mukugovera zvemagetsi uye kusimbisa hwaro hwako mumakemikari mune zvese.
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