Ubume beathom Yenye yeengqikelelo ezisisiseko zekhemistri kunye nefiziksi. Ikuvumela ukuba uqonde ukubunjwa kunye nokuziphatha ngalo mba kwinqanaba le-microscopic. Ngamafutshane, ibhekisa kwindlela amasuntswana asisiseko ematha alungelelaniswe kwaye asasazwe ngayo: iiathomu. Ukuqonda ubume be-athomu ngundoqo ekuqondeni izinto ezifana nokuphendulwa kweekhemikhali, iipropathi zezinto eziphathekayo, kunye ne-radioactivity, phakathi kwabanye.
Okokuqala, Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuba yintoni iathom. Iathom yeyona yunithi incinci yekhemikhali egcinayo iipropati zayo emzimbeni kunye neekhemikhali. Iqulunqwe yinucleus esembindini, equlethe amasuntswana ahlawulweyo abizwa ngokuba ziiprotons kunye namasuntswana angatshajiyo abizwa ngokuba ziineutron. Ukujikeleza i-nucleus, kukho ii-electron, amasuntswana ahlawuliswa kakubi ajikeleza kumanqanaba ahlukeneyo amandla.
Ubume beathom Isekelwe kumzekelo ocetywayo nguNiels Bohr ngo-1913. Ngokwale modeli, ii-electron zihanjiswa kwiindlela ezahlukeneyo okanye amanqanaba amandla ajikeleze i-nucleus. Inqanaba lamandla ngalinye linokugcina inani eliphezulu leelektroni, ngokulandela umthetho we-octet. Oko kukuthi, inqanaba lokuqala linokuqulatha ukuya kuthi ga kwi-electrons ezi-2, eyesibini ukuya kwi-electrons ezisi-8 kunye njalo njalo.
Ngaphandle koko, Ii-electron zinokutsiba ukusuka kwenye i-orbit ukuya kwenye, zifunxa okanye zikhuphe amandla ngendlela yeefotoni. Lo mcimbi ubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuba kwenzeka njani na utshintsho lwe-elektroniki, olukhokelela ekuphumeni kokukhanya kwimbonakalo yeempawu, ezisetyenziswa kwizicelo ezahlukeneyo, ezifana ne-spectroscopy.
Isishwankathelo, Ulwakhiwo lweathom lulungelelwaniso kunye nokusasazwa kweeathom ezenza into. Ukuqonda kwayo kubalulekile ukuqonda iimpawu kunye nokuziphatha kwemathiriyeli. Imodeli ecetywayo nguBohr inika umboniso owenziwe lula kodwa oluncedo wendlela ii-electron ezithatha ngayo amanqanaba ohlukeneyo amandla ajikeleze umongo. Uphononongo lwesakhiwo se-athomu sisiseko sokuqonda izinto zekhemikhali kunye nezomzimba, ukubonelela ngombono opheleleyo wehlabathi elincinci.
Ubume beathom kunye nokubaluleka kwayo kwisayensi
Ulwakhiwo lweathom luphononongo lwendlela iiathom ezilungelelaniswe ngayo kunye nendlela ezidibana ngayo enye kwenye. Iiathom zezona yunithi zincinane zenkqunto ezisagcina iimpawu zekhemikhali ethile. Ukuqonda ukwakheka kweathom kubalulekile ekuqondeni izinto ezahlukeneyo zomzimba kunye neekhemikhali ezenzekayo kuthi.
Ubume beathom buqulunqwe ngamasuntswana amathathu asisiseko: iiprotons, ii-neutron kunye nee-elektroni. I iiprotoni Ngamasuntswana ahlawuliweyo afunyenwe kwinucleus yeathomu. I ii-neutron, kwelinye icala, ngamasuntswana angatshajiwanga nawo ahlala kwinucleus. Ekugqibeleni, i ii-elektroni Zingamasuntswana ahlawuliswa kakubi ajikeleza i-nucleus. La masuntswana asebenzisana omnye komnye ngokusebenzisa amandla e-electromagnetic kwaye amisele iipropathi kunye nokuziphatha kweeathom.
Ukubaluleka kokuqonda i-atomic structure ilele kuyo ukuhambelana nesayensi kunye neteknoloji. Ulwazi oluneenkcukacha malunga nendlela iiathom ezilungelelaniswe ngayo lusivumele ukuba senze inkqubela phambili ebalulekileyo kwiindawo ezininzi, ukusuka kumayeza kunye namandla enyukliya ukuya kwi-electronics kunye ne-computing. Ngaphaya koko, uphononongo lolwakhiwo lweathomu lukhokelele ekufumaneni izinto zekhemikhali kwaye luye lwasivumela ukuba sityhile iimfihlelo zendalo iphela kwinqanaba elincinane le-athomu.
Ukuqulunqwa kunye nokulungelelaniswa kwesakhiwo se-athomu
La ubume beathom Ibhekisa kukwakheka kunye nokulungelelaniswa kwee-athom, eziziyunithi ezisisiseko zenkqunto. Iiathom zenziwe ngamasuntswana e-subatomic, anje iiprotoni, ii-neutron y ii-elektroni. Iiprotoni zinentlawulo elungileyo, i-neutron ayithathi cala, kwaye ii-electron zinentlawulo embi. Iiprotons kunye neeneutron zifunyanwa the nucleus ye-athomu, ngelixa ii-electron zijikeleza i-nucleus kwimimandla ebizwa ngokuba yi-athomu. Iileya ze-elektroniki o iileya zamandla.
La ukuhanjiswa kwee-electron kumaleko ombane alandela imodeli eyaziwa ngokuba umaleko wamandla okanye imodeli yenqanaba. Kulo mzekelo, ii-electron zigcwalisa amaqokobhe akufutshane kwinucleus ngaphambi kokuba afudukele kumaqokobhe angaphandle. Iqokobhe leelektroni lokuqala linokuqulatha ukuya kuthi ga kwi-electrons ezi-2, elesibini iqokobhe ukuya kwii-electron ezisi-8, kwaye elesithathu iqokobhe kananjalo ukuya kutsho kwii-electron ezisi-8. Oku kusasazwa kwee-electron kumaqokobhe e-elektroniki kugqiba iipropati zeekhemikhali kunye nokuziphatha kwee-athomu.
La ubume beathom Kubalulekile ukuqonda indlela iiathom ezisebenzisana ngayo ukuze zenze iimolekyuli kunye neekhompawundi ikhemikhali bond. Ii-athomu zinokwabelana, zilahlekelwe okanye zifumane ii-electron ukuze zifikelele kubume be-elektroniki obuzinzileyo kwaye ngaloo ndlela zenze iibhondi zeekhemikhali. La makhonkco angaba covalent (xa iiathom zabelana ii-electron), ionic (xa ii-athom zidlulisela ii-electron) okanye yesinyithi (xa iiathom zabelana a "ilifu" leelektroni). Ngamafutshane, ubume beathom sisiseko sokuqonda ikhemistri kunye nehlabathi elisingqongileyo.
Amalungu asisiseko eathom
Iathom, iyunithi esisiseko yazo zonke izinto, inobunzima ubume beathom yenziwe ngamacandelo abalulekileyo ahlukeneyo. La macandelo anoxanduva lweempawu kunye nokuziphatha kwezinto zekhemikhali. Ulwazi lolwakhiwo lweathom lubalulekile ekuqondeni ukuba iiathom zidibana njani enye kwenye kunye nendlela izinto ezahlukeneyo ezenziwe ngayo.
I-nucleus, esembindini we-athomu, yi- icandelo eliphambili ye ubume beathom. Le nucleus yenziwe ngamasuntswana e-subatomic abizwa ngokuba ziiproton kunye neeneutron. Iiprotoni, kunye nentlawulo efanelekileyo yombane, ichaza isazisi se-athomu, ekubeni inani labo lichaza into yeekhemikhali. Ngokwenxalenye yabo, i-neutron ayinayo intlawulo yombane kwaye umsebenzi wabo kukugcina uzinzo kwi-nucleus.
Ngokungqonge i-nucleus kukho ii-electrons, ezizizo amasuntswana anetyala elibi yeathom. Ezi electron zisasazwa kumanqanaba ahlukeneyo amandla okanye amaqokobhe ajikeleze i-nucleus. Iqokobhe ngalinye linokugcina inani eliphezulu leelektroni, ngokulandela imigaqo ethile esekiweyo. Inani leelektroni kumanqanaba angaphandle limisela i-reactivity ye-athomu kunye nokukwazi kwayo ukwenza iibhondi zemichiza kunye nezinye iiathom.
Impembelelo yee-electron kwisakhiwo se-athomu
Ulwakhiwo lweatom lubhekisa kumbutho kunye nolungiselelo lwamalungu asisiseko eatom. Kwinucleus yeathom kukho iiproton kunye neutron, ngelixa ii-electron zijikeleza kumanqanaba okanye amaqokobhe ajikeleze le nucleus. Inqanaba ngalinye linokubamba inani eliphezulu leelektroni kwaye zibizwa ngokuba yi-K, L, M, N, njalo njalo. Ukusasazwa okuchanekileyo kwee-electrons kula maleko kune Indima ebalulekileyo kwimichiza kunye neempawu zendalo.
Xa ii-electron zikumanqanaba ombane kufutshane ne-nucleus, umtsalane wazo kwiiprotons uba mkhulu, okukhokelela ekubeni amandla aphantsi, uzinzo ngakumbi kunye nokusezantsi kokuphinda kusebenze kwakhona kwemichiza ye-atom. Kwelinye icala, ii-electron ezikumanqanaba amandla kude kude kwinucleus zine amandla aphezulu, ezenza ukuba zifumaneke ngakumbi ukuba zithathe inxaxheba kwiikhemikhali zemichiza kunye nokwenza iibhondi kunye nezinye iiathom. Kolu lungelelwaniso lwe-elektroniki olumisela ukuba zinxibelelana njani na iiathom enye kwenye, zenza i-covalent, i-ionic okanye i-metallic bond kwaye inike uluhlu olukhulu lweekhompawundi zemichiza ezikhoyo kwindawo yethu.
Ukongeza, ii-electron zidlala indima ephambili kumbane kunye ne-thermal conductivity yezinto. Ii-electron ze-Valence, ezo zifumaneka kumanqanaba angaphandle e-athomu, zinoxanduva lokuqhuba umbane. Iatom ene ii-electron zamahhala ze-valence Kunokwenzeka ukuba udlulise umsinga wombane ngezinto eziphathekayo, okwenza umqhubi. Kwelinye icala, iiathom nge zonke izithuba zevalence Ngenxa yee-electron zabo zenza izinto zokukhusela, kuba zingenako ukuququzelela ukuhamba kwamandla ombane. Ezi ngcamango zibonisa ngokucacileyo ukubaluleka kwee-electron kwisakhiwo se-athomu kunye nefuthe labo kwiipropati zezinto.
I-nucleus ye-athomu kunye nendima yayo ephakathi
Inucleus yeathom sembindini weathom kwaye idlala indima ebalulekileyo kulwakhiwo . Iqulunqwe ikakhulu iiprotons kunye neutron, leyo kwintsebenziswano rhoqo. Iiprotoni ngamasuntswana ahlawuliswa kakuhle, ngelixa iineutron azikho ntlawulo yombane. Intsebenziswano phakathi ezi ndidi zimbini zamasuntswana igcina i-nucleus kunye kwaye iyinike uzinzo..
Ukongeza kwiiproton kunye ne-neutron, i-nucleus inokuqulatha amasuntswana amancinci abizwa ngokuba yi-quarks. Ezi quark zezona zakhiwo zisisiseko zematter kwaye zidibanisa ukwenza iiproton kunye nenyutroni. Uqwalaselo lwe quarks ngaphakathi nucleons, njengoko iseti protons kunye neutron kuthiwa, imisela iipropati nucleus kunye neeathom ngokubanzi..
I-nucleus yeatom ibalulekile ukuqonda iimpawu kunye nokuziphatha kweeathom. Ubungakanani bayo obunxulumeneyo buncinci kakhulu xa kuthelekiswa nobungakanani bubonke beatom, kodwa ubunzima bayo bubalela phantse bonke ubunzima beathomu. Ngenxa yokuxinwa kwentlawulo efanelekileyo kwi-nucleus, ii-electron, ezihlawuliswa kakubi, zijikeleza kwiindlela ezithile.. Ezi orbit ze-electron, ezikwabizwa ngokuba ngamanqanaba ombane, zimisela iipropathi zekhemikhali zento kunye nendlela edibana ngayo nezinye izinto.
Amandla abamba iiathom kunye
Ubume beathom bubhekisa kulungelelwaniso kunye nolungiselelo lweeathom kwinto. Iiathom zenziwe yinucleus esembindini, equlethe iiprotons kunye nenyutroni, engqongwe zii-electron ezijikelezayo. Amandla abamba iiathom kunye zaziwa njengamandla e-intermolecular.
Kukho iintlobo ezahlukeneyo zamandla e-intermolecular asebenza phakathi kwe-athom, eyona ixhaphakileyo yi-ionic force, i-covalent force, kunye ne-Van der Waals force. I amandla e-ionic Yenzeka phakathi kweeathom ezitshaje ngombane, enye inentlawuliso evumayo kwaye enye inexabiso elibi, nto leyo ebangela umtsalane wombane. Kwelinye icala, i amandla covalent Kwenzeka xa iiathom zabelana ngee-elektroni nezinye iiathom ezingabamelwane, zenza iibhondi zemichiza ezinamandla. Ekugqibeleni, i Van der Waals amandla Iveliswa yintsebenziswano phakathi kwe-dipoles esisigxina okanye i-dipoles eyenziwe kwii-athomu okanye iimolekyuli ezingabamelwane.
Amandla e-Intermolecular asisiseko ukuqonda iimpawu ezibonakalayo kunye neekhemikhali zezinto. Ubunzulu bezi mikhosi bumisela indawo yokubila, ukunyibilika kunye nombane wokuqhuba wezinto. Ke ngoko, kubalulekile ukuqonda amandla abamba iiathom kunye ukuqonda indlela yokuziphatha kwento kwinqanaba le-microscopic kunye ne-macroscopic.
Iingcebiso zokuqonda ubume beathom
Ulwakhiwo lweatom luluvo olusisiseko kwifiziksi nakwikhemistri. Ukwazi ukuba ii-athomu zilungelelaniswe njani kunye nokuqonda ukusebenza kwazo kwangaphakathi kubalulekile ekuqondeni inxalenye enkulu yeziganeko zemiba. Okulandelayo, siya kukunika iingcebiso ezithile ukuze usiqonde ngcono esi sakhiwo sinomdla.
1. Funda iimodeli zeathom: Izazinzulu ziye zacebisa iimodeli ezahlukeneyo ukuchaza ulwakhiwo lweatom kuyo yonke yembali. Ukusuka kwimodeli yakudala yeDalton ukuya kwimodeli ye-quantum yangoku, kubalulekile ukwazi iimpawu eziphambili zomntu ngamnye kunye nendlela eziye zavela ngayo ngokuhamba kwexesha. Oku kuya kukunceda uqonde iziseko ze-athomu yesakhiwo kunye nendlela ulwazi lwethu kule ndawo luphuhliswe ngayo.
2. Qonda usasazo lwee-electron: Ii-elektroni ngamasuntswana angaphantsi kwe-atomic ahamba rhoqo kwi-nucleus ye-athomu Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuba zisasazwa njani kumanqanaba ohlukeneyo amandla, kunye nobudlelwane babo kunye nobukhulu kunye nokuzinza kwee-athomu. Ukufunda iikhonsepthi ezinje nge-orbitals kunye namanani e-quantum kuya kukuvumela ukuba uqonde ngcono oku kusasazwa kunye nendlela echaphazela ngayo iipropathi zekhemikhali zezinto.
3. Yazi amandla e-interatomic: Ngaphakathi kweathom, kukho amandla ahlukeneyo abamba amasuntswana ayileyo kunye. La mandla aquka amandla anamandla enyukliya, atsalela iiprotons kwinucleus nangona zihlawulwe kakuhle, kunye namandla ombane ombane phakathi kwee-electron kunye nenucleus. Kubalulekile ukuqonda ukuba la mandla asebenzisana njani kunye nendlela aphembelela ngayo uzinzo kunye neempawu zee-athom.
Ukusetyenziswa kwesakhiwo se-athomu kwiteknoloji kunye neyeza
Uphononongo lwe ubume beathom iye yaziguqula zombini itekhnoloji kunye namayeza kwiminyaka yakutshanje. Kwi-teknoloji, ulwazi lwesakhiwo se-athomu luye lwavumela ukuphuhliswa kwezinto eziphambili, ezifana ne-semiconductors esetyenziselwa ukwenziwa kwee-chips kunye nezixhobo zombane Ngokuqonda indlela i-athomu ezihlelwe ngayo kwizinto eziphathekayo, izazinzulu zinokwenza izinto ezineempawu ezithile, njengamandla amakhulu , ukusetyenziswa kwamandla aphantsi okanye umthamo omkhulu indawo yokugcina idatha.
Kwezonyango, ulwazi lwe ubume beathom ibe luncedo ekuphuhliseni iindlela zokuxilonga ezichane ngakumbi kunye nonyango, umzekelo, itekhnoloji ye-MRI isebenzisa ulwazi lwendlela eziziphatha ngayo ii-athomu phambi kommandla wemagnethi ukwenza imifanekiso eneenkcukacha ngaphakathi kwendawo yangaphakathi. umzimba womntu. Ngaphezu koko, ukuqonda ukwakheka kwe-athomu yeekhompawundi zeekhemikhali kuye kwavumela ukuphuhliswa kwamachiza asebenzayo kunye nemiphumo emibi embalwa, ngokuyila iimolekyuli ezisebenzisana ngokuthe ngqo kunye neemolekyuli zomzimba.
Esinye isicelo esibalulekileyo se ubume beathom Ifumaneka kwi-nanotechnology, apho izazinzulu zilawula kwaye zilawula izinto ze-athomu nge-athomu Oku kuye kwakhokelela ekuphuculeni okuphawulekayo kwiinkalo ezifana ne-electronics, amandla, ukwakhiwa kwenzwa, kunye neyeza lokuvuselela. Ngokuqonda indlela ii-athom ezidibanisa ngayo kunye nokulungelelanisa, izazinzulu zinokuyila i-nanostructures enezakhiwo ezizodwa kunye nokuphucula ukusebenza kakuhle kunye nokusebenza kweenkqubo ezahlukeneyo.
NdinguSebastián Vidal, injineli yekhompyuter ethanda itekhnoloji kunye ne-DIY. Ngaphaya koko, ndingumdali we tecnobits.com, apho ndabelana ngee-tutorials ukwenza itekhnoloji ifikeleleke kwaye iqondeke kumntu wonke.